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E Pluribus Unum: Pluralism in the Continental Armyby Anne H. Arsenault In 1776, thirteen disparate colonies united against a common adversary in search of freedom. The content and meanings of this “freedom” often differed from state to state and even from person to person. The colonies were able to unite politically (though just barely), but social unification proved much more troublesome, in part because a large number of colonials had been born in other countries. Seeking money, land, power, or refuge, people of different ethnic and religious backgrounds arrived in the New World. And ties to the Old World remained strong even among the American-born. Although Americans celebrate July 4, 1776 as the birth date of the United States, the successful formation of the country depended upon the ability of these many groups to find common ground—to devise a concept of what it meant to be an American. The process of nation building began with a call to arms. Americans of all backgrounds answered this call to take on the strongest military power in the world, not yet fully knowing what would arise out of the ashes of violence and bloodshed. Acts of war, as played out by the Continental Army, provided meaningful experiences, and the most tangible evidence, of American unity. While most students of the American Revolution have some sense of the ethnic diversity of the Patriot army, the precise nature of that diversity and the dynamics of interaction within the army remain elusive. The experiences of the Continental Army’s encampment at Valley Forge are a lens that shows how the many groups residing within the colonies forged a cohesive structure as a basis for American identity. Today, on the 225th anniversary of that legendary winter, Valley Forge remains a symbol of American hope and courage. We should not forget that it also represents an important turning point in the making of a multi-ethnic -- but fully American -- army. The contributions of English, Irish, Scottish, German, Polish, Swedish, African, and other ethnic or national groups at Valley Forge give us an idea of how an amalgamation of multi-national colonies evolved into a multi-ethnic nation. One-third of America’s forces, approximately 12,000 soldiers, camped at the Forge to ride out the harsh Pennsylvania winter and recuperate from the series of defeats in the fall of 1777. John Joseph Stoudt, in his day-by-day chronicle of the encampment records his sense that, “At no other period in our national history was our freedom more deeply endangered, and at no other time was our life as a nation so much in jeopardy, as during the six months that the Continental Army under George Washington camped at [Valley Forge].” With the devastating loss at the battle of Germantown and General Howe’s army settling into the nation’s capital, Philadelphia, only 25 miles away, the Valley Forge soldiers had to rally both health and spirits for the long fight to come in the spring. The soldiers suffered from a lack of supplies, poor nutrition, and a fading confidence in their ability to overcome the British. “Each trial, however,” according to Stoudt, “seemed to uncover new reserves of determination issuing from a stubborn will to be and to remain free”[1] The army emerged from its experience with a newfound resolve and cohesion, with which (and the help of the French alliance), they finally turned the tide against the British. During this brief respite from combat, the commanders of the army and the soldiers themselves learned to utilize all of their available resources, including recognizing the skills that each cultural/ethnic group could bring to the cause. Fourteen brigades from 8 of the colonies—Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Virginia—camped at Valley Forge under the command of George Washington. Within each of these states, soldiers of all different backgrounds served in the name of the United States.[2] Men of English and Scottish ancestry comprised roughly half of the forces. Men with names such as Smith, Jones, Allen, and even Washington were well represented in the officer corps as well as the rank and file. But the other half of the Valley Forge encampment traces its origins to ethnic and national groups that have been less visible in historical accounts than they were on the ground at Valley Forge. It is impossible to discern exact numbers for each of these groups because data on ethnicity was not usually recorded during the Revolutionary period. Moreover, assigning national origins from the names on the muster rolls can be very inaccurate, since people commonly Anglicized or otherwise changed their names. Historians estimate, however, that of the largest groups, approximately 25% of the soldiers were of Irish descent and 12% were of German descent. The Irish presence in the Americas in the 18th century is often underestimated. While small compared to the mass influx during the potato famine of the 1840s, the Irish population was large enough at this time to comprise one quarter of the troops, and to become the largest non-English ethnic group within the Army. Smaller numbers of Dutch, Swedish, Polish, African, and an even smaller number of Native American men also took up arms in the Continental Army. In addition to our French allies, many other foreigners participated in the Revolution, most prominently in the officer corps. After several years of fighting for the same cause, these soldiers and officers convened at Valley Forge, sharing common hardships and goals and building a sense of uniformity, despite their many differences. New immigrants to the colonies often occupied the lowest rungs of the economic ladder. The prospect of steady wages and food rations led many individuals to serve in the armed forces. In fact, recruiters spent much of their time “concentrating on the poorer segments of society” trying to “induce those without property to enlist as long-termed soldiers”[3] Using their service as a strategy to achieve economic and social mobility, the Irish and German populations especially provided the Continental Army with much of its manpower. Within the Valley Forge encampment, the several brigades from Pennsylvania accounted for a large proportion of the army’s Irish and German soldiery. In addition to the economic benefits that attracted them, the Irish were among the most devout patriots. Ireland was also a British colony—a situation which the Irish had resisted violently for years. Those who escaped Ireland in search of tolerance and opportunity in the New World were as ready to fight British rule in the Americas as in their homeland. Their opposition to the English primed them for the new American cause of independence. The German population, while more removed from this history of English domination, was nonetheless known for “unswerving faithfulness” to the United States during the Revolution[4]. Large numbers of Germans had settled in the interior lands of Pennsylvania just after the establishment of the colony. German Quakers, abiding by a religious commitment to pacifism, came under attack for refusing to fight for either side, and if they were patriots, found they had to assert their loyalty boldly. Although Germans maintained their own language and separated themselves from the larger American population in rural settlements, “These Germans were intensely loyal, and promptly volunteered to aid in establishing the independence of their adopted country”[5] Perhaps one of the most important contributions of the Pennsylvania Germans was their skill in riflery. Their valor already proven in the French and Indian War, German Americans were regarded as some of the best marksmen of the time. Even before the signing of the Declaration of Independence, Congress called upon the Germans to support their neighbors in battle; in June of 1775, Congress recruited them by calling for “the formation of 10 companies of rifle sharpshooters, six of which were to come from Pennsylvania, two from Maryland, and two from Virginia”—all states which contained sizeable German American populations.[6] Again in June of 1776, Congress directed, “four companies of Germans to be raised in Pennsylvania, and four companies in Maryland to compose ‘the German battalion’”[7] The German Regiment, as it came to be known, was a recognizable and widely respected segment of the army. The sharpshooters were among the most elite members of the American forces. Although nearly forgotten today, the Pennsylvania-German contribution to the war effort seems to have made a lasting impression on those who fought in the Revolution. In the wartime journal of Thatcher [NOTE: He needs to be thoroughly identified, full name, relation to army, etc.] he provides a description of the German fighters: “They are remarkably stout and hardy men; many of them exceeding six feet in height. They are dressed in white frocks or rifle shirts and round hats. These men are remarkable for the accuracy of their aim…”[8] Even George Washington praised their participation to Congress, “They are, indeed, a very useful corps, but I need not mention this, as their importance is already well known to Congress”[9] While the German Regiment was the only regiment distinguished by ethnicity, there is no sign they endured prejudice from the rest of the troops. German American names are sprinkled throughout the muster rolls of other regiments and non-Germans were invited to join the ranks of the German Regiment. The Pennsylvania long rifle, the weapon of the German riflemen, was a product of their craft economy. Manufactured by German Americans, it made sense that they would have the skill to put the rifles to proper use. In Henry Muhlenberg’s account of Germans in the Revolution, he reminds us that “the world may not forget that the dreaded riflemen of the Revolution were mostly German mountaineers of Pennsylvania derivation whose weapon was of the same nationality although greatly improved in their own Pennsylvania-German workshops”[10] Language and cultural barriers created difficulties for many German American soldiers hoping to achieve higher rank and better pay. One exception to this rule, however, General Peter Muhlenberg, commanded the German Regiment and was a memorable character among the Pennsylvania Germans. Known as “devil Pete,” Muhlenberg was famous on both sides of the battle lines for his fearsome presence and courageous attacks.[11] “His stalwart form and swarthy face [were] as familiar to the enemy as they [were] to his own men, for the Hessians are said to have cried, ‘Hier kommt teufel Pete!’ [Here comes “Devil Pete”] as they saw him lead the charge at Brandywine.”[12] Achieving fame early on in the Revolution, Muhlenberg became a symbol of the Pennsylvania German’s reputation for loyalty and bravery. Loyalty was an important issue in the search for qualified soldiers. Since military service ought to and would justify full citizenship in the new nation, many Americans hesitated to enlist foreigners and African Americans , however willing or able. In May 1775, the Committee of Safety decreed that it was forbidden to enlist “any person who is not an American born” as well as that “no slaves be admitted upon any consideration whatever.”[13] However, the realities of contending with British might required some revision to that hasty resolution. As the war came into full swing, necessity undermined this nativist and racist barrier. American success depended upon the enlistment of able-bodied soldiers no matter their origins or their aspirations. With the outbreak of the war, the British were the first to extend an invitation to enslaved Blacks to join the Loyalist forces. Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation of 1774 offered slaves their freedom in exchange for service to the British. The Patriots were not so quick to embrace Black participation. Officially, slaves were prohibited from service until 1777. Nevertheless, fearful that African Americans would join us on the British side, and desperate to get soldiers into the field, American recruiters ultimately allowed both free blacks and slaves to enlist. By the close of the Revolution, Blacks had legal permission to enlist in every colony except South Carolina and Georgia. As a Hessian officer observed, “The Negro can take the field instead of his master, and therefore no regiment is to be seen in which there are not Negroes in abundance, and among them are able-bodies and brave fellows”[NOTE: please check this quote. Is it “able-bodied”?[14] Despite barriers to Black enlistment in the early years of the Revolution, approximately 5,000 enslaved and free blacks served in the Continental army. In fact, African Americans served in integrated units alongside their fellow Patriots—a situation that would not arise again until after the Second World War. Although most regiments were integrated, both Rhode Island and Massachusetts formed all-black units. During the encampment at Valley Forge, the “Rhode Islanders…[were] busy with a scheme to raise and enlist regiments of negro troops.”[15] Every child in school learns of the bravery of the mulatto, Crispus Attucks, the first American to lose his life in the fight for independence. However, few other African American soldiers have made it into the history books. Racism prevented Blacks from attaining any commissioned rank within the army, but, at the time of fighting, Blacks were regarded as a valuable asset in the war effort. Black soldiers are said to have been extremely loyal to their officers. Loyalty and hard work made their participation highly advantageous to the Continental Army. But the reasons why free or enslaved African Americans chose to follow the patriots were more varied. Initially, many masters forced their slaves into service. Others joined later upon the promise of freedom in exchange for service. Many free blacks chose to serve for the same reasons that the German and Irish did—the promise of food and wages when steady employment was scarce. Still others rallied to the American cause attracted by the rhetoric of freedom and equality. They fought, in part, so that those ideas would have to expand to include them, too. The discrimination that blacks encountered over color, foreigners encountered to some extent over their origins. Many Americans felt that foreigners should be excluded from high-ranking positions commanding the native-born. And yet, the makeup of the officer corps was the most visible sign of the foreign element in the Revolutionary War. The French, official ally of the United States after 1778, was only one of the sources of aid to the war effort. Several Europeans arrived in America as individuals, bringing their experiences from previous European wars and hoping to gain commissions in the American army. The diversity of experiences of these European officers gave the inexperienced American military the greater strength they needed against a powerful adversary. The Marquis de Lafayette was the most famous of the foreign officers, but others notables present at Valley Forge included, Casimir Pulaski from Poland, and Barons DeKalb and Von Steuben from Prussia. The contributions of these skillful men played key roles in reshaping the structure of the army and the way the soldiers defined “Americanness.” General Baron DeKalb was among those foreign officers that many Americans initially mistrusted. Of Prussian descent, DeKalb gained his military experience fighting in Europe before joining the American side. He was well liked among the troops and had a reputation for his “amiable disposition” He commanded American troops in such a manner that he could forge a relationship with the soldiers and overcome the obstacle of his foreign birth. Pinowski recalls, “he disarmed all prejudice and opposition against him.”[16] Unlike DeKalb, Casimir Pulaski, an expert cavalry commander, was not a favorite of the troops. Trained fighting for Polish independence, Pulaski immigrated to fight in the Revolution. But he tended to discriminate among his troops, preferring other foreigners with whom he could communicate in his native tongue. However, he played a key role in the making of the Continental Army, giving Washington essential access to the fighting and scouting skills of trained cavalry. Until Pulaski was commissioned, no American had shown any particular promise in this important aspect of military power. . Congress was hesitant to grant him eligibility but Pulaski approached Washington directly. Pinowski sums up his experience saying, “None of the high officers on whom Washington had to rely for help was thoroughly schooled in the art of using cavalry in battle…Pulaski asked the Commander in Chief to put him in charge of the mounted corps. Washington did not hesitate a moment.”[17] Although he proved his skills on the battlefield and gained the respect of his soldiers, Pulaski was never a favorite of the rank and file. His success in the army and at Valley Forge lay in his ability to establish and command a powerful horse-mounted brigade that would dramatically improve American fighting capability. Baron Von Steuben, also of Prussian origin, had perhaps the most significant impact on the soldiers during the Valley Forge winter. As a new and spontaneously organized fighting force, the Continental Army struggled with problems of discipline and uniformity. Von Steuben came from a highly regimented and organized military background, to which he added a quick understanding of the motivations of American soldiers. He wrote the Continental Army’s first Manual of Discipline, extending his knowledge to the fledgling Patriot army. While the troops at Valley Forge waited for spring and the renewal of combat, Von Steuben organized a series of drills and tutorials for them. The soldiers practicing under his command achieved a sense of commonality that they had never had before. Stoudt noted, “No such thing as military discipline has existed in this Army. We have had no regular formations…The formation of Regiments is as varied as their mode of drill, which consists only of the manual of exercises. Each Col[onel] seems to have had his own system, one according the English, and Muhlenberg’s according to the Prussian, and some according to the French style.”[18] Von Steuben indeed “[turned] the encampment into the first training camp of the country’s armed forces.”[19] Ironically, it was the work of foreigners during this six-month period that created a new identity and confidence among the soldiers—boosting their morale and promoting the unity of the Continental Army. The metamorphosis of the Army between December 1777 and July 1778 drastically changed the course of American history. Under the most dire conditions, brave men, both native-born and from abroad, were forced to reconcile their differences and work in direct relationship to one another in anticipation of the hard fight to come. Three days after arriving at Valley Forge, Stoudt writes, “Problems of Rank & Precedence still plague this Army.”[20] Squabbling within and between units sharply diminished the effectiveness of the forces at the start. Four months later, on Monday, April 27, 1778, despite horrendous hardship and privation, the disorder has faded away; The entire army seemed to be moving as one, “[t]he constant drilling and manoeuvring has charged the men with new spirit so that they again are heart, full of spirit, eager for action and animated by true patriotism—common soldiers fighting for their liberties against the Oppressor’s heavy hand.”[21] A celebration of the Valley Forge encampment would not be complete without recognizing its importance in America’s ethnic as well as military history. An emblem of American perseverance, this crucial time can also be a window into our diverse origins as a people. The contributions of Irish Americans, German Americans, African Americans, foreign-born newcomers, and the many other groups whose histories require further research are inextricably linked to America’s successful defeat of the British. The hard times shared by one third of the Continental Army at Valley Forge created the conditions in which the United States truly came into its own, beginning the long journey toward its future as a multi-cultural republic. [1] John Joseph Stoudt. Ordeal at Valley Forge: A Day-by-Day Chronicle From December 17, 1777 to June 18, 1778. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1963), 7 [2] Ramona Cameron Worley, Valley Forge…In Search of that Winter Patriot. A Comprehensive Guide for Tracing Valley Forge Ancestors. (Louisville, KY: National Society of the Sons of the American Revolution, 1979), xi. [3] Charles Patrick Neimeyer, America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army, (New York: New York University Press, 1996), 2. [4] Henry Muhlenberg Richards, The Pennsylvania-German in the Revolutionary War, (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 485-86. [5] Ibid., 80. [6] Ibid., 81. [7] John Blair Linn, William Henry Egle & Joseph McClellan, editors. Pennsylvania in the Revolution: Battalions and Line, (L.S. Hart, State Printer, 1880), vol. 2, 77. [8] Ibid., 23. [9] Ibid., vol. 1, 13. [10] Richards, The Pennsylvania German, 82. [11] Stoudt, Ordeal, 41. [12] The Centennial and Memorial Association of Valley Forge, Valley Forge: Proceedings on the Occasion of the Centennial Celebration of the occupation of Valley Forge by the Continental Army, under George Washington, June 19, 1878, (published 1879), 81. [13] The Negro Soldier: A Select Compilation. (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1970), 5. [14] Thomas Moebs, Black Soldiers—Black Sailors—Black Ink. (Chesapeake Bay: Moebs Publishing Company, 1994), 264. [15] Centennial Proceedings, 81. [16] Edward Pinowski, Washington’s Officers Slept Here: Historic Homes of Valley Forge and its Neighborhood. (Philadelphia, PA: Sunshine Press, 1953), 41. [17] Ibid.,70. [18] Stoudt, Ordeal, 193. [19] Pinowski, Washington’s Officers, 20. [20] Stoudt, Ordeal, 31. [21] Ibid., 251. Become a Member of The Historical Society of Pennsylvania and receive Pennsylvania Legacies. Image: The Battle of Germantown in 1777. Society Print Collection. |
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terrorism, issues of patriotism and “Americanness” confront us once again, and, as they did 200 years ago, ethnicity and religion play an important part in our discussion of how to safeguard American freedom. By allowing religious and ethnic differences to enter the conversation, we highlight a persistent and difficult American dilemma, assuring our national security without infringing upon some of the basic freedoms upon which American democracy rests. The story of Washington’s army at Valley Forge may provide a fresh perspective on these continuing concerns.